Describe and compare different organizational settings
in which information professionals practice.

Introduction

Libraries invoke images of stacks of books that stretch to the ceiling with a few tables and chairs to complement a quiet musty atmosphere. While some libraries conform to this stereotype, many facilities offer amenities such as meeting rooms, makerspaces, child development play centers, and even coffee shops. This diversification is reflective of the expanding boundaries of library operations. Libraries are also expanding their digital footprint through the creation of virtual spaces from their online website. The advent of COVID-19 has also increased the emphasis that libraries place on the online component of their operations. Libraries can be broadly categorized by mission, governance, and clientele. In this document, I discuss these characteristics as they relate to five types of organizations: public libraries, academic libraries, school libraries, medical libraries, and archive and manuscript repositories.

Explication

Public Libraries

Public librarianship is constantly evolving to match the needs of the public. Motivated partially out of a need to justify their continued funding and partially out of a desire to benefit their respective communities, public libraries are branching out from their traditional roles. They now function as community centers. They support their communities by providing a comfortable climate-controlled space for the patrons to gather innovative programs for enrichment and services to meet various needs in the community. Despite this new expansive role, meeting the information needs of their clientele by answering questions, responding to interests, and resolving the myriad of problems that patrons encounter remains at the core of their identity (Cassel & Hireemath, 2013, p. 5). By providing this core service, public libraries can forge positive relationships with the residents of their communities.

Public libraries are funded and governed by the communities they serve. This governance is often administered through a county or municipal government. They appoint the library’s director to head the organization. Then he or she, in turn, will set policy and supervises long-term planning as well as act as the library’s principal advocate for financing. It should be noted that public libraries compete with other governmental and non-governmental entities for public funds.

Mission statements of a public library explicate an expansive vision. While there is variation, public libraries seek to strengthen the communities they serve, enrich the lives of the inhabitants of those communities, and connect them to the larger world. The Fresno County Public Library’s mission statement reflects this.

FCPL Mission Statement

“FCPL transforms lives and strengthens communities by providing opportunities to connect, grow, and be inspired” (Fresno County Public Library, 2022).

Public library systems hire a mix of professionals and paraprofessionals to staff their central and branch libraries and maintain back-of-house function to conduct their mission. To connect residents to the world, public libraries provide the use of computers, printers, and access to the Internet, including a Wi-Fi connection. Libraries provide inviting, comfortable, climate-controlled facilities, which function as cooling and warming centers for the surrounding neighborhoods. No one need question whether they can use the restrooms and drinking fountains at a public library. As a recognizable location, libraries make an ideal site to host a precinct or vote center. And, of course, libraries remain a vital avenue for consultation on important matters, including legal and health and wellness questions.

Archives and Manuscript Repositories

Archive and manuscript repositories are responsible for the documentary materials of enduring value—created, received, used, or kept by a person, family, organization, or government as they conduct their daily life—for the purpose of making such materials available to the public or specific clientele (Millar, 2017, p. 4). Due to practical considerations, individual archiving institutions collect evidence of enduring value within a narrow focus. Collectively, the holdings of the numerous archival institutions comprise a curated record of human history. Within the field of archives, archival evidence can be divided into two broad categories: manuscripts—created by individuals and families—and secondly archives (generated by institutions). Archival institutions that focus on collecting documentary materials created by individuals and families are referred to as manuscript repositories with their holdings collectively referred to as “papers,” and institutions that preserve documentary evidence created by institutions are called archival repositories with their holdings collectively referred to as “records.”

The range of mission statements reflects the diversity of agencies that engaged in archival work. Whether these organizations are institutional, hybrid, collecting, museum, community-based, or indigenous archives; the core of any mission statement of an archival or manuscript repository is to identify records and papers of enduring value within a collecting scoop, preserve them, and make them available to the public or select clientele.

A mission statement often serves as a part of an extensive strategic planning process. In this process, the mission statement is paired with a vision statement. A vision statement outlines the goals the objectives the institution aspires to attain in the future. A mission statement establishes how the institution will work toward attaining those goals. For archival repositories, a mission statement is often paired with a mandate statement. The mandate statement delineates the responsibilities and legal authority of the repository institution (Millar, 2017, p. 125).

Archivist personnel should be familiar with the regulatory and policy framework of their institution. This framework includes legislation that may relate to intellectual property and copyright, privacy, admissibility of evidence, cultural heritage, property management, criminal statutes, and labor relations (Millar, 2017, p. 130). Ignorance of the law is never an excuse.

When operating as a department of a larger library, there is a budgetary tendency for repositories to fold archive catalogers into a general cataloging department. While such an organizational structure may work, the workflow and expertise required to process new acquisitions are unique to the field. And the separation of specialized personnel may result in greater overall productivity overall. Archival acquisition personnel must deemphasize the prestige, aesthetic, and monetary value of prospective archival records and papers. They must also refrain from the pitfalls of territoriality, such as pursuing an acquisition that falls within the collecting scope of the institution but where the institution lacks the expertise and equipment to care for such artifacts (Millar, 2017, p. 31). Ultimately, what is most important to an archival repository is the evidentiary value of the item in question.

When appraising potential acquisitions (to add to an archival or manuscript repository’s existing holdings), archivists verify the provenance and establish the authenticity of the record in question. Accessioning is the actual transfer of records to an archival repository or (papers to a manuscript repository). Decisions on acquisitions or accessioning must be taken with great care. From a practical perspective, limitations on space restrict an archival repository to housing only the most noteworthy of materials pertaining to the narrow focus as guided by the institution’s acquisitions policy. Furthermore, a repository should only accept artifacts that they have the facilities and expertise to preserve.

Standards of professionalism necessitate that all donations of primary materials undergo extensive processing before primary resources can be made available to the public. “Archivists emphasize the importance of respecting the individual, family[,] or organization that created or received the items that make up a unit of archival materials (Millar, 2017, p. 46).” It is not uncommon for there to be a processing backlog that stretches into the years. Processing catalogs the contents of donations into cartons allowing researchers to retrieve pertinent documentary materials by requesting a specific carton as identified by the collection’s finding aid.

Ethics demand that if a manuscript repository or archives cannot process a donation within a suitable period of time, it would be ethical for the institution to reject the proffered acquisition on those grounds. Finally, donors may retain legal rights that restrict the use of these materials. If access to and use of a prospective acquisition would be severely hampered, a repository would be better-served housing other materials. Donor agreements are key to accessioning. They lay out the responsibilities and duties of all parties involved with the donation.

Disposal of primary resources is frowned upon. Should a manuscript or archival repository be looking to deaccession a collection to make space for more valuable materials, it is best of the institution is able to locate and secure another repository to house the deaccessioned archival material.

Archives and manuscript repositories must guard all collections within their custody against vandalism, accidental damage, and theft. These considerations must be balanced with providing equitable access to the public or select clientele. The field of archiving, in particular, places special emphasis on the preservation of the papers and records within their collections—as any harm incurred by the primary sources within a repository’s care may result in unrepairable damage. By definition, primary sources are irreplaceable should they be either lost or destroyed. Part of this process of safeguarding these materials for future use is the careful documentation of actions to preserve or access any archival material. Transparency is critical to preserving the provenance of archival materials.

Archivists must establish or update policies that balance the needs of their clientele to access documentary materials while safeguarding the archival evidence for future use as well as preserving the privacy of the living subjects referenced in the documentary material and the privacy of the donor. To facilitate this, archivists must update reference policies and enforce those policies during the repository’s normal operations. Common policies include requiring all bags to be checked in at a front desk and limiting access to one carton at a time to reduce the opportunities for theft. In addition, the banning of food and drink in the institutions safeguards the integrity of any materials from accidental spills when they are accessed.

When archival records and papers are not being used by the public or designated stakeholders, archival and manuscript repositories should secure their contents with security systems in positive pressure rooms. These spaces should have temperature and humidity controlled for the long-term preservation of the archival artifacts.

In addition, archives and manuscript repositories require well-formulated plans to respond to disasters that would threaten the integrity of the collections under their care. These institutions should “have well-formulated plans in place to respond to any disasters that may threaten records (Society of American Archivists, 2012).”

Archives continue to grapple with how to authenticate and preserve digital evidence. “Unlike paper records, digital data can be altered or deleted in a microsecond. A digital sound recording, unlike a vinyl LP recording, can be manipulated and updated instantaneously.” (Millar, 2017, p. 8) Digital records require security measures to ensure their authenticity and provenance. While the field of archives has made strides in this direction, the archival field has yet to coalesce around a single standard for the preservation of digital papers and records of enduring value. Regardless, of which measures a repository takes to preserve and secure their digital holdings, these measures should be formalized in a security policy.

Academic Libraries

Libraries are the center of academic study and collaboration for their respective collegiate institutions. They exist to assist students and faculty in their scholarly pursuits. Academic libraries are governed by their parent institutions. Accordingly, fiscal oversight and funding fall under the supervision of the institute’s administration. Regardless, tuition is an essential source of funding for both public and private universities and colleges and their academic libraries. The collegiate libraries of public institutions also receive a fixed proportion of the education and general (E&G) budget allocated to their parent institution. It is not uncommon for academic libraries to receive gifts and grants as a source of funding.

Endowments can also be used to support collegiate libraries. An endowment (or more precisely the endowment principal) is comprised of assets that have been invested for the purpose of generating income. Academic libraries then disburse this investment income to finance library operations. In particular, the continuous nature of endowment income is well matched to support the perpetual cost of acquisitions to add to the existing holdings of an academic library. The range of mission statements reflects the variety of colleges and universities that exist.

From community colleges to doctorate-awarding universities, the mission of an academic library parallels the mission of their parent institution. The missions of community college libraries direct them to curate their library resources in physical and digital formats to support the curriculum of the various courses their parent institution offers. In many cases, this means housing a substantial collection of fiction to support language and English literacy studies. For institutions that engage in research, libraries must expand the variety of their collections beyond supporting academic coursework to assist students and faculty with their research endeavors by providing access to the materials and resources required to conduct such research. They may also be responsible for operating numerous branches. Branch libraries may exist because a school or department is located some distance from the main library. In other cases, a collegiate branch library exists because students and faculty wish for library services and materials closer to their academic buildings, and the department or school in question has the funds to support the branch.

An academic library is typically headed by a dean or director. Classified staff “are paid hourly wages and provide crucial services, including interlibrary loan, circulation, and copy cataloging (Gilman, 2017, p. 130).” A collegiate library will typically have a few “exempt-employees who are paid annual salaries and whose duties might include managing, supervising, and overseeing library operations (Gilman, 2017, p. 130).” There is a major divide in academic libraries on whether personnel qualify for faculty status and eligibility for tenure.

It is not uncommon for librarians to specialize in an assigned domain or subject area. This specialization allows an academic library to use subject-specific expertise to be more responsive to the needs of an academic department and their faculty and students. These subject librarians often partner with faculty members of another department to acquire appropriate research materials.

Academic libraries provide LibGuides or other instructional tools either to assist them in completing specific coursework or, more generally, to prod scholars to think critically about the knowledge presented to them and to develop skills to efficiently conduct research in their chosen field.

Academic libraries are significant contributors to the scholarly communication ecosystem. Part of this role includes assisting faculty in publishing their research through a library-press partnership with the campus’s university press. In addition, academic libraries are staunch advocates of open access content and often maintain the university’s institutional repository.

School Libraries

School libraries, like their higher education counterparts, are expanding from their traditional role to become collaborative centers of learning. Ideally, school libraries will have a flexible design, featuring an open space that can be rearranged to accommodate different groups of different sizes. Unfortunately, many school libraries are space restricted. It is not unheard of for school librarians to implement innovative solutions to make the most of a school library’s allocated space.

A cornerstone of school librarians is to emphasize technological literacy. This is most effectively done when collaborating with teachers over a long-term unit. For example, there may be a biology unit on tidal wildlife. The unit could require them to use various avenues and information sources to acquire information. The unit could have them upload a video onto YouTube. The librarian would be responsible for such instruction and become the go-to faculty member to help students with issues of this nature.

The primary mission of the school library is to support the education of the pupils that attend the campus. This is done by curating their materials to support the curriculum on the various subjects at various grade levels. School librarians are often the only staffer for their respective libraries, meaning that they have to perform a wide range of duties. In this librarian specialty, it is important to not reinvent the wheel. For instance, school librarians should not have to do any original cataloging, relying on copy cataloging to organize their collections of library materials. If they are lucky, school librarians will only serve one campus; but often, due to budgetary constraints, a school librarian will find themselves split between multiple institutions.

School librarians may also be called to uphold the principles of intellectual freedom by defending against challenges to have books and other library content banned. The American Library Association Code of Ethics calls on librarians to “uphold the principles of intellectual freedom and resist all efforts to censor library resources” (American Library Association, 2021). One method some school librarians use to fend off book bans is to prepare in advance” challenge defense files” for likely targets.

Medical Libraries

Medical libraries specialize in providing their clientele with medically relevant information. These special libraries can be associated with a university or practicing medical institution (commonly a hospital). There are also a few standalone community medical libraries. Medical libraries are governed by their parent institutions. Accordingly, fiscal oversight and funding fall under the purview of the administration of their parent organization.

Medical libraries that primarily support hospitals are generally square footage lean. They must compete with other departments for square footage and often lose out to other considerations. These health science libraries focus on providing up-to-date digital resources with few—if any—physical materials. From an interview I conducted, Fresno, CA’s largest hospital, recently moved their medical library to a small room furnished with a couple computer stations and a printer. While this move may have been partially motivated by the UCSF Fresno teaching program, which has its own building, including a medical library. It should be noted that only the students and teaching faculty have unfettered access to its resources. The UCSF Medical Librarian attached to the teaching program is hesitant to email a digital copy of any resources to personnel not specifically associated with the teaching program. Instead, she sends a hard copy through the hospital’s internal mailing system.

Physicians and other medical staff are reliant on electronic devices instead of seeking books or consulting articles from a physical copy of a peer-reviewed medical journal. With the exception of medical libraries that support large teaching programs, health science libraries focus on providing a core group of online resources to provide healthcare support. Despite focusing on online subscriptions, the rising cost of online medical resources is a challenge for all medical libraries. On average, subscriptions to online medical resources are more costly than non-medical online resources.

The range of mission statements reflects the variety of agencies that engage in medical librarianship. Those that are attached to hospitals support the practice of medicine by providing up-to-date information from which practitioners may make medical decisions. Those medical libraries that are associated with medical schools also place an emphasis on medical education as well as advancing medical research.

The medical librarians have a professional organization the Medical Library Association (MLA) which sets standards of professionalism, allows them to network, and formerly recognize changes within the field of medical librarianship. Medical librarians also have a listserv to reach out to each other and communicate on evolving matters. The staffing at medical libraries attached to hospitals is typically very lean, commonly with one full-time librarian and no assistants. Those that are attached to a medical school have more robust staffing; but in either case, medical librarians help students, medical practitioners, and other members of the public navigate an evolving landscape of medical research and treatment.

Evidence

Evidence 1: Professional Synthesis: Children Librarianship Presentation

I am including this “Professional Synthesis: Children Librarianship” specialty to attest to my knowledge of public libraries. For this assignment, I was directed to research the qualifications of a specialty of librarianship to provide an overview of the expertise I should be building and the duties I would be expected to fulfill when I graduate with the Master of Library and Information Science (MLIS). My selection of specialty children’s librarianship was influenced by my interest in learning how to better accommodate my audience during my first series of storytimes at the Woodward Park Regional Library.

Children’s librarians should have an expansive knowledge of children’s literature and advise collection development in the acquisition of materials for young patrons. Connect with adolescent patrons and their parents. This includes leveraging social media platforms such as Twitter and Facebook. They work to provide a safe environment to play that encourages development in early literacy. When possible, they and their staff assist students in researching and developing their skills in research. Children’s librarians organize school visits and outreach to schools. In addition, children’s librarians host a variety of programs to match the interests and developmental needs of young patrons.

Evidence 2: Integration of University Press into the Academic Library

I have put forward the white paper “Beyond the Partnership: Integration of University Press” into the Academic Library (from INFO 230 Issues in Academic Libraries) as evidence of my insight into the environment of academic libraries. This document addresses the importance of the academic library to the scholarly communication ecosystem and how a library-press partnership is one way that academic libraries may support the publication of research conducted by their campus community. This paper highlights how community partnerships leverage the existing expertise of an academic library for an outsized positive impact on their institution’s students and faculty.

Evidence 3: Transcription and MARC Record of A. G. Harris Letter

As evidence of my knowledge of archives and manuscript repositories, I submit this handwritten letter (digital copy of a primary source) as well as an accompanying transcription MARC record of my own authorship (from INFO 256 Archives and Manuscripts). This document demonstrates my ability to work in a manuscript or archival repository and to accomplish original cataloging. However, I am a bit embarrassed that I consistently transcribed Arthur Grant Harris’s capital letter “I” as a capital letter “P.”

Evidence 4: Daniel Pearl High School Library Profile

As evidence of my knowledge of school libraries, I offer this “Daniel Pearl High School Library Profile. This was completed in partnership with Greta Enszer, Daniel Pearl High School’s librarian, in preparation for writing a grant proposal to obtain a cart of laptops to bring the Daniel Pearl High School into the twenty-first century. During this partnership, I gained many insights into the difference that working in a grade school setting can have on librarianship. As an example, school librarians should be aware of the demographics of their student population so that library collections, instruction, and school library programs can be tailored to the specific needs of their student learners. School libraries continue to support the development of English literacy, The youths are largely digital natives, but school librarians focus on providing instruction to hone critical thinking skills to differentiate between false statements and credible information. They do this by collaborating with teachers. Paralleling this trend is the transformation of school libraries into digital media centers. School libraries can also be a center of a school community by providing places to showcase student work and organizing school field trips.

On a personal note, I once hosted a library tour at the Laton Branch Library (the oldest continuously operating library in California). This tour was scheduled, because budgetary considerations forced Laton High School to close their school library. This illustrates why it is essential to emphasize the value of school libraries and librarians, because school districts have a historical tendency to downsize library operations—robbing students of access to critical resources.

Evidence 5: Academic Medical Library Best Practices for Allocation of Space

As evidence of my understanding of the demands on medical libraries, and in particular academic medical libraries, I proffer this research paper from INFO 220 Medical and Health Sciences Librarianship. In this term paper, I discuss how space is allocated in academic medical libraries to meet the dual role of education and healthcare support. Academic medical libraries use a born-digital layout and feature a flexible information commons—suited to accommodate various sized groups in their study of the health sciences. Smaller collections of print materials reflect the medical field’s preference for on-demand digital materials. In the twenty-first century, collegiate medical libraries feature digital media centers and exhibit spaces. Overall, the layout of medical libraries should be flexible to meet the evolving needs of the user population.

Conclusion

A Master of Library and Information Science (MLIS) degree is the key to working in the leadership of a broad spectrum of institutions. These institutions vary by their mission, governance, and clientele, but they all seek to meet the needs of their respective constituencies. In public libraries, personnel may wear many hats as library branches engage the community through a variety of different touchpoints, but the core of the public library still remains, providing unrestricted access to information through library materials and resources. Archivists in manuscript and archival repositories most constantly balance considerations of preservation with considerations of access. Academic librarians support academic coursework and students and faculty with their research endeavors. The primary mission of the school library is to support the education of the pupils that attend the campus. School libraries like their collegiate counterparts have expanded from their traditional role to become collaborative centers of learning. Medical libraries have embraced the digital age and emphasize on-demand digital resources to provide current and relevant medical knowledge to support medical treatment and research. The proffered evidence in this portfolio, the coursework, and work experience with the Fresno County Public Library have accumulated a breadth and depth of knowledge on the types of institutions befitting that of a holder of the MLIS degree.

References

American Library Association. (2019, January 29). Library bill of rights. https://www.ala.org/advocacy/intfreedom/librarybill/

American Library Association. (2021, June 29). Professional Ethics. ALA American Library Association. https://www.ala.org/tools/ethics

Cassell, K. A. Hireemath, U. (2013). Reference and information services: An introduction. Chicago, IL: Neal-Schuman

Fresno County Public Library (2022, January 10). Fresno County Public Library Strategic Plan | 2019-20. https://www.fresnolibrary.org/about/mission.html

Gilman, Todd. (Ed.). (2017). Academic Librarianship Today. Rowman & Littlefield.

Millar, L. A. (2017). Archives: Principles and practices. (2nd ed.). Neal-Schuman.

Society of American Archivists. (2012). SAA core values statement and code of ethics. https://www2.archivists.org/statements/saa-core-values-statement-and-code-of-ethics

Wayne, D. (2014). Crash course in collection development. (2nd ed.). Libraries Unlimited.